Evidenced Based interventions in Mental health

Introduction How decisions are made within the treatment of psychological problems requires considerable thought and consideration. The purpose of this analysis is to look at the advantages of evidence based practice and how this can operate from a practical point of view and whether indeed it works as the most efficient and optimal approach to determining suitable treatment for psychological problems. Workbook 1 – Evidenced Based Practice The concept of evidence-based practice has gathered considerable pace in the last few decades and creates an acceptance of the idea that all practical decisions relating to medical or psychological treatment should be based on research and existing studies in the area which have been selected. This research should then be interpreted in a direct way and applied to the practical situation presented by using these observations as a theoretical basis (Chambless and Hollon, 1998). When looking at this from a psychological point of view, which is preferred in this instance, evidence-based practice requires those engaged with this type of work to follow techniques based on research evidence that has already been presented. Various different criteria and approaches have been used over the years for example Chambless and Hollon in 1998 noted that there are specific criteria which need to be complied with when looking to use any form of empirically supported therapy. According to these criteria, a therapy would be considered to be both effective and efficient if there is evidence available from two different settings that indicate that the proposed treatment has performed better than some other placebo style treatment. To support this the example of cognitive behaviour therapy, which has been proven to be effective across a variety of different patient types, including adults, children and adolescents. However as noted in the research by Chambles and Hollon; there have been instances whereby the criterion has not been applied rigorously or to the highest standard. This can then bring into question whether or not evidence-based practices are efficient, not because the evidence-based practice doesn’t work but because the criteria of admissibility have not been followed correctly. An arguably more rigorous approach was taken by Saunders et al (2004) that suggest the research report being relied on should be put into six different categories depending on the theoretical background, such as the acceptance of the principal and any evidence of potential harm that is associated with the approach being looked at. In order to receive a classification in this manner, there needs to be some form of descriptive publication including, if necessary a manual as to how the operational aspect of the intervention work. This is arguably a much more rigorous approach as it recognises the various different ways in which evidence based research can then be used in practical decision making (Thomas et al 2010). Finally it is worth noting that in reality the most likely approach is that suggested by Kauffman’s best practices which are used when looking at intervention experiences that have a similar other fact pattern available for analysis. This is then deemed appropriate evidence and the practitioner will then follow the process that is considered to be the best practice in this particular area at the current point in time. When looking at the practical reality of using this evidence-based research there is a strong argument to suggest that this is the best possible approach as it simply encourages those involved in the provision of medical services to look towards similar situations and to identify how the practitioners have dealt with these problems and learn lessons from any failure to improve the intervention that they themselves then offer. Quite simply, this is the process of learning lessons from other mistakes or indeed learning lessons from the successes of others. Workbook 2 When providing care for individuals with mental health difficulties, one of the key challenges can be to ascertain the level of intervention that is appropriate. There is a key distinction between treatment and facilitated learning when it comes to assisting individuals with mental health difficulties in achieving improvement in certain areas of their treatment. In order to understand the concept of intervention, it is arguably central to understand this distinction. Intervention refers to the point at which the individual practitioner chooses to directly engage and interact with the patient (Rogers, 2003). Arguably, both treatment and facilitated learning are on this spectrum, with treatment being a prescribed and deliberate action by the practitioner whereas facilitated learning is much more geared towards encouraging individuals to learn on their own account whilst being supported by the practitioner, particularly where there are substantial mental health issues which may require ongoing treatment to prevent an irrecoverable mistake from being made (Rogers, 2003). A typical example of intervention in this type of situation may be that of therapeutic interventions which starts with the process by which the mental health professional themselves and service user develop a relationship that will enable them to discuss the best way forward (Griffiths, 2007).. This in itself can be used for therapeutic intervention, which will then allow the two parties to determine the best possible course of action example it may be that cognitive behavioural therapy is perceived to be the best way for and where this is the case. The combination of the two people will look towards establishing goals and agendas for this therapy. Depending on the nature of the problem and the extent of the damage that has been suffered it may be that professional has to take either a greater or lesser role. The process of learning is crucially important for both the healthcare professional and the service user themselves in order to ensure that interventions are planned, implemented and regularly reviewed. Any form of treatment should be viewed as an ongoing cycle whereby the next stage is then planned before being implemented and there is a process of learning from the elements that work well and those which could be improved (Ryan, 2012). As noted in the earlier part of this discussion, intervention involves a two-way dialogue process between the healthcare professional and the service user and therefore there is a continuously movement between the two entities as the professionals look for the best way to achieve the desired result by observing the activities of the service user . The service user is also then learning about the aspects of their treatment, which are being particularly productive with a view to becoming more self-sufficient over a prolonged period of time. When looking at the concept of learning in this broader sense the entire the entire intervention process facilitated learning can develop with both parties. Learning from each other and creating an effective strategy which may involve a completely different form of intervention at some point or another. It is argued here, however, that continuous learning is the central fact or as to whether or not intervention is ultimately a success. Conclusions By looking at the analysis above it is concluded that evidence based treatment is likely to offer a much deeper understanding of the treatment options available and crucially the practical likelihood of the success of such treatments. Intervention presents a real challenge as picking the precise point and level of intervention and it is argued here that intervention which is patient led will be more likely to be successful in the long run and should form a central part for this type of treatment. References Chambless, D., & Hollon, S. (1998). Defining empirically supportable therapies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 7-18. Griffiths, C., (2007).The theories, mechanisms, benefits, and practical delivery of psychosocial educational interventions for people with mental health disordersInternational Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation. 11 (1), 21-28. Kaufman Best Practices Project. (2004). Kaufman Best Practices Project Final Report: Closing the Quality Chasm in Child Abuse Treatment; Identifying and Disseminating Best Practices. Rogers, A., 2003. What is the DifferenceA New Critique of Adult Learning and Teaching, Leicester: NIACE. Ryan, P., (2012). Empowerment, Lifelong Learning and Recovery in Mental Health: Towards a New Paradigm. Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan. Saunders, B., Berliner, L., & Hanson, R. (2004). Child physical and sexual abuse: Guidelines for treatments. Retrieved September 15, 2006, fromhttp://www.musc.edu/cvc.guidel.htm Thomas, M. Burt, M. and Parkes, J., (2010). Chapter 1. The Emergence of Evidence-based Practice, In McCarthy, J. and Rose P. Values-Based Health & Social Care: Beyond Evidence-Based Practice. London: Sage.

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Non-governmental organization From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search â€Å"NGO† redirects here. For other uses, see NGO (disambiguation). | This article may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The discussion page may contain suggestions. (January 2012) | A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a legally constituted organization created by natural or legal persons that operates independently from any form of government.The term originated from the United Nations (UN), and is normally used to refer to organizations that are not a part of the government and are not conventional for-profit business. In the cases in which NGOs are funded totally or partially by governments, the NGO maintains its non-governmental status by excluding government representatives from membership in the organization. The term is usually applied only to organizations that pursue wider social aims that have political aspects, but are not openly political organizations such as political parties. The number of NGOs operating in the United States is estimated at 40,000. 1] International numbers are even higher: Russia has 277,000 NGOs;[2] India is estimated to have around 3. 3 million NGOs in year 2009, which is just over one NGO per 400 Indians, and many times the number of primary schools and primary health centres in India. [3][4] Contents * 1 Definition * 2 Types * 2. 1 Development, Environment and Human Rights NGOs * 2. 2 Track II Diplomacy * 3 Activities * 3. 1 Operational * 3. 2 Campaigning * 3. 3 Both * 3. 4 Public relations * 3. 5 Project management * 4 Corporate structure * 4. 1 Staffing * 4. Funding * 4. 3 Overhead costs * 4. 4 Monitoring and control * 5 History * 6 Legal status * 7 Critiques * 7. 1 Challenges to legitimacy * 8 See also * 9 References * 10 Further reading * 11 External links| Definition NGOs are difficult to define and classify, and the term ‘NGO' is not used consistently. As a result, there are many different classifications in use. The most common use a framework that includes orientation and level of operation. An NGO's orientation refers to the type of activities it takes on. These activities might include human rights, environmental, or evelopment work. An NGO's level of operation indicates the scale at which an organization works, such as local, international or national. â€Å"Confronting the Classification Problem: Toward a Taxonomy of NGOs† One of the earliest mentions of the acronym â€Å"NGO† was in 1945, when the UN was created. The UN, which is an inter-governmental organization, made it possible for certain approved specialized international non-state agencies – or non-governmental organisations – to be awarded observer status at its assemblies and some of its meetings. Later the term became used more widely.Today, according to the UN, any kind of private organization that is independent from government contr ol can be termed an â€Å"NGO†, provided it is not-profit, non-criminal and not simply an opposition political party. Professor Peter Willetts, from the University of London, argues the definition of NGOs can be interpreted differently by various organizations and depending on a situation’s context. He defines an NGO as â€Å"†an independent voluntary association of people acting together on a continuous basis for some common purpose other than achieving government office, making money or illegal activities. [5] In this view, two main types of NGOs are recognized according to the activities they pursue: operational NGOs that deliver services and campaigning NGOs. Although Willetts proposes the operational and campaigning NGOs as a tool to differentiate the main activities of these organizations, he also explains that a single NGO may often be engaged in both activities. Many NGOs also see them as mutually reinforcing. Professor Akira Iriye defines NGO as â€Å" a voluntary nonstate, nonprofit, nonreligious, and nonmilitary association. â€Å"[6] Types Some find it helpful to classify NGOs by orientation and/ Professional association * Empowering orientation; NGO type by level of co-operation * Community-based organization * City-wide organization * National NGO * International NGO Apart from â€Å"NGO†, there are many alternative or overlapping terms in use, including: third sector organization (TSO), non-profit organization (NPO), voluntary organization (VO), civil society organization (CSO), grassroots organization (GO), social movement organization (SMO), private voluntary organization (PVO), self-help organization (SHO) and non-state actors (NSAs).Non-governmental organizations are a heterogeneous group. As a result, a long (and sometimes confusing or comical) list of additional acronyms has developed, including: * BINGO, short for ‘business-friendly international NGO' or ‘big international NGO' * TANGO, ‘tech nical assistance NGO' * TSO, ‘third sector organization' * GONGO, ‘government-operated NGOs' (set up by governments to look like NGOs in order to qualify for outside aid or promote the interests of government) * DONGO: Donor Organized NGO INGO stands for international NGO; Oxfam, INSPAD,[7] Institute of Peace and Development â€Å"A European Think Tank For Peace Initiatives†; * QUANGOs are quasi-autonomous non-governmental organizations, such as the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). (The ISO is actually not purely an NGO, since its membership is by nation, and each nation is represented by what the ISO Council determines to be the ‘most broadly representative' standardization body of a nation.That body might itself be a nongovernmental organization; for example, the United States is represented in ISO by the American National Standards Institute, which is independent of the federal government. However, other countries can be represented b y national governmental agencies; this is the trend in Europe. ) * National NGO: A non-governmental organization that exists only in one country. This term is rare due to the globalization of non-governmental organizations, which causes an NGO to exist in more than one country. [5] * CSO, short for civil society organization ENGO: short for environmental NGO, such as Greenpeace and WWF * NNGO, short for ‘Northern nongovernmental organization' * SNGO, short for ‘Southern nongovernmental organization' * SCO, also known as ‘social change organizations' * TNGO, transnational NGO; The term emerged during the 1970s due to the increase of environmental and economic issues in the global community. TNGO includes non-governmental organizations that are not confined to only one country, but exist in two or more countries. * GSO: Grassroots Support Organization * MANGO: short for market advocacy NGO NGDO: non-governmental development organization USAID refers to NGOs as privat e voluntary organizations. However, many scholars have argued that this definition is highly problematic as many NGOs are in fact state and corporate funded and managed projects with professional staff. [citation needed] NGOs exist for a variety of reasons, usually to further the political or social goals of their members or funders. Examples include improving the state of the natural environment, encouraging the observance of human rights, improving the welfare of the disadvantaged, or representing a corporate agenda.However, there are a huge number of such organizations and their goals cover a broad range of political and philosophical positions. This can also easily be applied to private schools and athletic organizations. Development, Environment and Human Rights NGOs NGOs are organizations that work in many different fields, but the term is generally associated with those seeking social transformation and improvements in quality of life. Development NGOs is the most highly visi ble sector, and includes both international and local organizations, as well as those working in humanitarian emergency sector.Many are associated with international aid and voluntary donation, but there are also NGOs that choose not to take funds from donors and try to generate funding in other ways, such as selling handicrafts or charging for services. Environmental NGOs are another sub-sector, and sometimes overlap with development NGOs. An example is Greenpeace. (see: List of Environmental NGOs). Just like other NGOs networks, transnational environmental networks might acquire a variety of benefits in sharing information with other organizations, campaigning towards an issue, and exchanging contact information.Since Transnational environmental NGOs advocate for different issues like public goods, such as pollution in the air, deforestation of areas and water issues, it is more difficult for them to give their campaigns a human face than NGOs campaigning directly for human rights issues. Some of the earliest forms of transnational environmental NGOs started to appear after the Second World War with the creation of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN).After the UN was formed in 1945, more environmental NGO started to emerge in order to address more specific environmental issues. In 1946, the UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) was created with the purpose of advocating and representing scientific issues and collaboration among environmental NGOs. In 1969, the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE) was funded to increase and improve collaboration among environmentalists. This collaboration was later reinforced and stimulated with the creation of UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Program in 1971.In 1972, the UN Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm, tried to address the issues on Sweden’s plead for international intervention on trans-boundary pollution from other European industrialized nations. Transnational environmental NGOs have taken on diverse issues around the globe, but one of the best-known cases involving the work of environmental NGO’s can be traced back to Brazil during the 1980s. The United States got involved with deforestation concerns due to the allegations of environmentalists dictating deforestation to be a global concern, and after 1977 the U.S. Foreign Assistance Act added an Environmental and Natural Resources section. Human rights NGOs may also overlap with those in development, but are another distinct category. Amnesty International is perhaps one of the best-known. During the early 1980s the Brazilian government created the Polonoreste developing program, which the World Bank agreed to finance. The Polonoreste program aimed to urbanized areas of the Amazon, which were already occupied by local indigenous groups.Rapid deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon called the attention and intervention of UNE SCO, who utilized its Program on Man and the Biosphere to advocate against the Polonoreste program, on the grounds of violating the rights of the indigenous groups living in the Amazon. In the case of deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon, the environment NGOs were able to put pressure on the World Bank to cancel the loans for the Polonoreste program. Due to the leverage that the U. S. has over the bank, in 1985 the World Bank suspended the financial aid to the Polonoreste Program.The work of environmental NGOs in the Brazilian case was successful because there was a point of leverage that made the targeted actor vulnerable to international pressure. [8] Even though NGOs might have common goals relating to development or environment issues, interests and perspectives are diverse. A distinction can be made between the interests and goals among those NGOs located in industrialized countries—often referred to as the states of the North—and NGOs from nations located in dev eloping countries—referred to as states of the South.There is sometimes tension between them. Southern states blame the developed nations for over-consumption and pollution resulting from industrialization, and for sustaining inequalities in the international economic system There is also a distinction among groups that take on particular and specific socio-economic issues. The Women’s Environment and Development Organization was created in 1990 with the purpose to advocate for gender inclusion in work related to the Earth Summit.Other groups might focus on issues that include racial minorities and individuals from lower income backgrounds. [9] Track II Diplomacy Main article: Track II diplomacy Track II dialogue, or Track II diplomacy, is a transnational coordination that involves non-official members of the government including epistemic communities as well as former policy-makers or analysts. Track II diplomacy aims to get policymakers and policy analysts to come to a common solution through discussions by unofficial figures of the government.Unlike the Track I diplomacy where government officials, diplomats and elected leaders gather to talk about certain issues, Track II diplomacy consists of experts, scientists, professors and other figures that are not involved in government affairs. The members of Track II diplomacy usually have more freedom to exchange ideas and come up with compromise on their own. Activities There are also numerous classifications of NGOs. The typology the World Bank uses divides them into Operational and Advocacy:[10] NGOs vary in their methods.Some act primarily as lobbyists, while others primarily conduct programs and activities. For instance, an NGO such as Oxfam, concerned with poverty alleviation, might provide needy people with the equipment and skills to find food and clean drinking water, whereas an NGO like the FFDA helps through investigation and documentation of human rights violations and provides legal as sistance to victims of human rights abuses. Others, such as Afghanistan Information Management Services, provide specialized technical products and services to support development activities implemented on the ground by other organizations.NGOs were intended to fill a gap in government services, but in countries like India, NGOs are gaining a powerful stronghold in decision making. In the interest of sustainability, most donors require that NGOs demonstrate a relationship with governments. State Governments themselves are vulnerable because they lack strategic planning and vision. They are therefore sometimes tightly bound by a nexus of NGOs, political bodies, commercial organizations and major donors/funders, making decisions that have short term outputs but no long term affect.NGOs in India are under regulated, political, and recipients of large government and international donor funds. NGOs often take up responsibilities outside their skill ambit. Governments have no access to th e number of projects or amount of funding received by these NGOs. There is a pressing need to regulate this group while not curtailing their unique role as a supplement to government services. Operational Operational NGOs seek to â€Å"achieve small scale change directly through projects. â€Å"[5] They mobilize financial resources, materials and volunteers to create localized programs in the field.They hold large scale fundraising events, apply to governments and organizations for grants and contracts in order to raise money for projects. They often operate in a hierarchical structure; with a main headquarters staffed by professionals who plan projects, create budgets, keep accounts, report, and communicate with operational fieldworkers who work directly on projects[5] Operational NGOs deal with a wide range of issues, but are most often associated with the delivery of services and welfare, emergency relief and environmental issues.Operational NGOs can be further categorized, one frequently used categorization is the division into relief-oriented versus development-oriented organizations; they can also be classified according to whether they stress service delivery or participation; or whether they are religious or secular; and whether they are more public or private-oriented. Operational NGOs can be community-based, national or international. The defining activity of operational NGOs is implementing projects. [5] Campaigning Campaigning NGOs seek to â€Å"achieve large scale change promoted indirectly through influence of the political system. [5] Campaigning NGOs need an efficient and effective group of professional members who are able to keep supporters informed, and motivated. They must plan and host demonstrations and events that will keep their cause in the media. They must maintain a large informed network of supporters who can be mobilized for events to garner media attention and influence policy changes. The defining activity of campaigning NGOs is holding demonstrations. [5] Campaigning NGOs often deal with issues relating to human rights, women's rights, children's rights. The primary purpose of an Advocacy NGO is to defend or promote a specific cause.As opposed to operational project management, these organizations typically try to raise awareness, acceptance and knowledge by lobbying, press work and activist event. Both It is not uncommon for NGOs to make use of both activities. Many times, operational NGOs will use campaigning techniques if they continually face the same issues in the field that could be remedied through policy changes. At the same time, Campaigning NGOs, like human rights organizations often have programs that assist the individual victims they are trying to help through their advocacy work. [5] Public relationsNon-governmental organizations need healthy relationships with the public to meet their goals. Foundations and charities use sophisticated public relations campaigns to raise funds and employ s tandard lobbying techniques with governments. Interest groups may be of political importance because of their ability to influence social and political outcomes. A code of ethics was established in 2002 by The World Association of Non Governmental NGOs. Project management There is an increasing awareness that management techniques are crucial to project success in non-governmental organizations. 11] Generally, non-governmental organizations that are private have either a community or environmental focus. They address varieties of issues such as religion, emergency aid, or humanitarian affairs. They mobilize public support and voluntary contributions for aid; they often have strong links with community groups in developing countries, and they often work in areas where government-to-government aid is not possible. NGOs are accepted as a part of the international relations landscape, and while they influence national and multilateral policy-making, increasingly they are more directly i nvolved in local action. Corporate structureStaffing Some NGOs are highly professionalized and rely mainly on paid staff. Others are based around voluntary labour and are less formalized. Not all people working for non-governmental organizations are volunteers. Many NGOs are associated with the use of international staff working in ‘developing' countries, but there are many NGOs in both North and South who rely on local employees or volunteers. There is some dispute as to whether expatriates should be sent to developing countries. Frequently this type of personnel is employed to satisfy a donor who wants to see the supported project managed by someone from an industrialized country.However, the expertise these employees or volunteers may be counterbalanced by a number of factors: the cost of foreigners is typically higher, they have no grassroot connections in the country they are sent to, and local expertise is often undervalued. [10] The NGO sector is an important employer i n terms of numbers. [citation needed] For example, by the end of 1995, CONCERN worldwide, an international Northern NGO working against poverty, employed 174 expatriates and just over 5,000 national staff working in ten developing countries in Africa and Asia, and in Haiti. FundingWhether the NGOs are small or large, various NGOs need budgets to operate. The amount of budget that they need would differ from NGOs to NGOs. Unlike small NGOs, large NGOs may have annual budgets in the hundreds of millions or billions of dollars. For instance, the budget of the American Association of Retired Persons (AARP) was over US$540 million in 1999. [12] Funding such large budgets demands significant fundraising efforts on the part of most NGOs. Major sources of NGO funding are membership dues, the sale of goods and services, grants from international institutions or national governments, and private donations.Several EU-grants provide funds accessible to NGOs. Even though the term â€Å"non-gove rnmental organization† implies independence from governments, many NGOs depend heavily on governments for their funding. [13] A quarter of the US$162 million income in 1998 of the famine-relief organization Oxfam was donated by the British government and the EU. The Christian relief and development organization World Vision United States collected US$55 million worth of goods in 1998 from the American government.Nobel Prize winner Medecins Sans Frontieres (MSF) (known in the USA as Doctors Without Borders) gets 46% of its income from government sources. [14] Government funding of NGOs is controversial, since, according to David Rieff, writing in The New Republic, â€Å"the whole point of humanitarian intervention was precisely that NGOs and civil society had both a right and an obligation to respond with acts of aid and solidarity to people in need or being subjected to repression or want by the forces that controlled them, whatever the governments concerned might think about the matter. [15] Some NGOs, such as Greenpeace do not accept funding from governments or intergovernmental organizations. [16][17] Overhead costs Overhead is the amount of money that is spent on running an NGO rather than on projects. [18] This includes office expenses,[18] salaries, banking and bookkeeping costs. What percentage of overall budget is spent on overhead is often used to judge an NGO with less than 10% being viewed as good. [18] The World Association of Non-Governmental Organizations states that ideally more than 80% should be spent on programs (less than 20% on overhead). 19] The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria has specific guidelines on how high overhead can be to receive funding based on how the money is to be spent with overhead often needing to be less than 5-7%. [20] While the World Bank typically allows 10%. [21] A high percentage of overhead to total expenditures can make it more difficult to generate funds. [22] High overhead costs may als o generate criticism with some claiming the certain NGOs with high overhead are being run simply to benefit the people working for them. [23] Monitoring and control In a March 2000 report on United Nations Reform priorities, former U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan wrote in favor of international humanitarian intervention, arguing that the international community has a â€Å"right to protect†[24] citizens of the world against ethnic cleansing, genocide, and crimes against humanity. On the heels of the report, the Canadian government launched the Responsibility to Protect R2P[25] project, outlining the issue of humanitarian intervention. While the R2P doctrine has wide applications, among the more controversial has been the Canadian government's use of R2P to justify its intervention and support of the coup in Haiti. 26] Years after R2P, the World Federalist Movement, an organization which supports â€Å"the creation of democratic global structures accountable to the citizens of the world and call for the division of international authority among separate agencies†, has launched Responsibility to Protect – Engaging Civil Society (R2PCS). A collaboration between the WFM and the Canadian government, this project aims to bring NGOs into lockstep with the principles outlined under the original R2P project.The governments of the countries an NGO works or is registered in may require reporting or other monitoring and oversight. Funders generally require reporting and assessment, such information is not necessarily publicly available. There may also be associations and watchdog organizations that research and publish details on the actions of NGOs working in particular geographic or program areas. [citation needed] In recent years, many large corporations have increased their corporate social responsibility departments in an attempt to preempt NGO campaigns against certain corporate practices.As the logic goes, if corporations work with NGOs, NGOs will not work against corporations. In December 2007, The United States Department of Defense Assistant Secretary of Defense (Health Affairs) S. Ward Casscells established an International Health Division under Force Health Protection & Readiness. [27] Part of International Health's mission is to communicate with NGOs in areas of mutual interest. Department of Defense Directive 3000. 05,[28] in 2005, requires DoD to regard stability-enhancing activities as a mission of importance equal to combat.In compliance with international law, DoD has necessarily built a capacity to improve essential services in areas of conflict such as Iraq, where the customary lead agencies (State Department and USAID) find it difficult to operate. Unlike the â€Å"co-option† strategy described for corporations, the OASD(HA) recognizes the neutrality of health as an essential service. International Health cultivates collaborative relationships with NGOs, albeit at arms-length, recognizing their trad itional independence, expertise and honest broker status.While the goals of DoD and NGOs may seem incongruent, the DoD's emphasis on stability and security to reduce and prevent conflict suggests, on careful analysis, important mutual interests. History International non-governmental organizations have a history dating back to at least 1839. [29] It has been estimated that by 1914, there were 1083 NGOs. [30] International NGOs were important in the anti-slavery movement and the movement for women's suffrage, and reached a peak at the time of the World Disarmament Conference. 31] However, the phrase â€Å"non-governmental organization† only came into popular use with the establishment of the United Nations Organization in 1945 with provisions in Article 71 of Chapter 10 of the United Nations Charter[32] for a consultative role for organizations which are neither governments nor member states—see Consultative Status. The definition of â€Å"international NGO† (ING O) is first given in resolution 288 (X) of ECOSOC on February 27, 1950: it is defined as â€Å"any international organization that is not founded by an international treaty†.The vital role of NGOs and other â€Å"major groups† in sustainable development was recognized in Chapter 27[33] of Agenda 21, leading to intense arrangements for a consultative relationship between the United Nations and non-governmental organizations. [34] It has been observed that the number of INGO founded or dissolved matches the general â€Å"state of the world†, rising in periods of growth and declining in periods of crisis. [35] Rapid development of the non-governmental sector occurred in western countries as a result of the processes of restructuring of the welfare state.Further globalization of that process occurred after the fall of the communist system and was an important part of the Washington consensus. [13] Globalization during the 20th century gave rise to the importance of NGOs. Many problems could not be solved within a nation. International treaties and international organizations such as the World Trade Organization were centred mainly on the interests of capitalist enterprises. In an attempt to counterbalance this trend, NGOs have developed to emphasize humanitarian issues, developmental aid and sustainable development.A prominent example of this is the World Social Forum, which is a rival convention to the World Economic Forum held annually in January in Davos, Switzerland. The fifth World Social Forum in Porto Alegre, Brazil, in January 2005 was attended by representatives from more than 1,000 NGOs. [36] In terms of environmental issues and sustainable development, the Earth Summit in Rio in 1992 was the first to show the power of international NGOs, when about 2,400 representatives of NGOs came to play a central role in deliberations.Some have argued that in forums like these, NGOs take the place of what should belong to popular movements of th e poor. Whatever the case, NGO transnational networking is now extensive. [37] Legal status The legal form of NGOs is diverse and depends upon homegrown variations in each country's laws and practices. However, four main family groups of NGOs can be found worldwide:[38] * Unincorporated and voluntary association * Trusts, charities and foundations * Companies not just for profit Entities formed or registered under special NGO or nonprofit laws The Council of Europe in Strasbourg drafted the European Convention on the Recognition of the Legal Personality of International Non-Governmental Organizations in 1986, which sets a common legal basis for the existence and work of NGOs in Europe. Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights protects the right to freedom of association, which is also a fundamental norm for NGOs. Critiques Stuart Becker provides the following summary of the primary critiques of NGOs: There’s a debate that, NGOs take the place of what should belon g to popular movements of the poor.Others argue that NGOs are often imperialist in nature, that they sometimes operate in a racist manner in Third World countries and that they fulfill a similar function to that of the clergy during the colonial era. Philosopher Peter Hallward argues that they are an aristocratic form of politics. â€Å"[39] Issa G. Shivji is one of Africa's leading experts on law and development issues as an author and academic. His critique on NGOs is found in two essays: â€Å"Silences in NGO discourse: The role and future of NGOs in Africa† and â€Å"Reflections on NGOs in Tanzania: What we are, what we are not and what we ought to be†.Shivji argues that despite the good intentions of NGO leaders and activists, he is critical of the â€Å"objective effects of actions, regardless of their intentions†. [40] Shivji argues also that the sudden rise of NGOs are part of a neoliberal paradigm rather than pure altruistic motivations. He is critical of the current manifestations of NGOs wanting to change the world without understanding it, and that the imperial relationship continues today with the rise of NGOs. James Pfeiffer, in his case study of NGO involvement in Mozambique, speaks to the negative effects that NGO's have had on areas of health within the country.He argues that over the last decade, NGO's in Mozambique have â€Å"fragmented the local health system, undermined local control of health programs, and contributed to growing local social inequality† [41] He notes further that NGO's can be uncoordinated, creating parallel projects among different organizations, that pull health service workers away from their routine duties in order to serve the interests of the NGO's. This ultimately undermines local primary health care efforts, and takes away the governments ability to maintain agency over their own health sector. 42] J. Pfeiffer suggested a new model of collaboration between the NGO and the DPS (the Moza mbique Provincial Health Directorate). He mentioned the NGO should be ‘formally held to standard and adherence within the host country', for example reduce ‘showcase' projects and parallel programs that proves to be unsustainable. [43] Jessica Mathews once wrote in Foreign Affairs in 1997: â€Å"For all their strengths, NGOs are special interests. The best of them †¦ often suffer from tunnel vision, judging every public act by how it affects their particular interest†. 44] Since NGOs do have to worry about policy trade-offs, the overall impact of their cause might bring more harm to society. [45] Vijay Prashad argues that from the 1970s â€Å"The World Bank, under Robert McNamara, championed the NGO as an alternative to the state, leaving intact global and regional relations of power and production. â€Å"[46] Others argue that NGOs are often imperialist[47] in nature, that they sometimes operate in a racialized manner in third world countries, and that the y fulfill a similar function to that of the clergy during the high colonial era.The philosopher Peter Hallward argues that they are an aristocratic form of politics. [48] Popular movements in the global South such as, for instance, the Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign in South Africa have sometimes refused to work with NGOs arguing that this will compromise their autonomy. [49][50] Another criticism of NGOs is that they are being designed and used as extensions of the normal foreign-policy instruments of certain Western countries and groups of countries. 51] Russian President Vladimir Putin made this accusation at the 43rd Munich Conference on Security Policy in 2007, concluding that these NGOs â€Å"are formally independent but they are purposefully financed and therefore under control. â€Å"[52] Also, Michael Bond wrote â€Å"Most large NGOs, such as Oxfam, the Red Cross, Cafod and Action Aid, are striving to make their aid provision more sustainable. But some, mostly in th e US, are still exporting the ideologies of their backers. † [53] Indeed, whether the NGOs are adiding for evangelical purposes or their ideological intentions, various NGOs are examined and accused of their nature.There has also been the overwhelming disaster of NGOs using white lies or misinformed advise to enact their campaigns. In other words, NGOs have been quite ignorant about critical issues because, as chief scientist at Greenpeace Doug Parr claims, these organizations have lost their efforts in being trully scientific and are now more self-interested. Rather than operating through science so as to be rationally and effectively practical, NGOs are now abusing the utilization of science in order to gain their own advantages.In the beginning, as Parr indicated, there was â€Å"‘a tendency among our critics to say that science is the only decision-making tool . . . but political and commerical interests are using science as a cover for getting their way. ‘â⠂¬ [54] At the same time, NGOs have shown themselves not to be very cooperative with other groups, as the previous policy-maker for the German branch of Friends of the Earth Jens Katjek acknowledged. â€Å"If NGOs want the best for the environment, he says, they have to learn to compromise. â€Å"[55] Challenges to legitimacy The issue of the legitimacy of NGOs raises a series of important questions.This is one of the most important assets possessed by an NGO, it is gained through a perception that they are an â€Å"independent voice†. [56][57] Their representation also emerges as an important question. Who bestows responsibilities to NGOs or INGOs and how do they gain the representation of citizens and civil society is still not scrutinized thoroughly. For instance, in the article, it is stated, â€Å"To put the point starkly: are the citizens of countries of the South and their needs represented in global civil society, or are citizens as well as their needs constructed by practices of representation?And when we realize that INGOs hardly ever come face to face with the people whose interests and problems they represent, or that they are not accountable to the people they represent, matters become even more troublesome. † [58] Moreover, the legitimacy and the accountability of NGOs on the point of their true nature are also emerging as important issues. Various perceptions and images on NGOs are provided, and usually implemented in an image as ‘non-state actors' or ‘influential representatives of civil society that advocate the citizen. Accountability may be able to provide this and also be able to assist activities by providing focus and direction[59] As non-state actors with considerable influence over the governance in many areas, concerns have been expressed over the extent to which they represent the views of the public and the extent to which they allow the public to hold them to account. [60] The origin of funding can have serious implications for the legitimacy of NGOs. In recent decades NGOs have increased their numbers and range of activities to a level where they have become increasingly dependent on a limited number of donors. 60] Consequently competition has increased for funding, as have the expectations of the donors themselves. [61] This runs the risk of donors adding conditions which can threaten the independence of NGOs, an over-dependence on official aid has the potential to dilute â€Å"the willingness of NGOs to speak out on issues which are unpopular with governments†. [57] In these situations NGOs are being held accountable by their donors, which can erode rather than enhance their legitimacy, a difficult challenge to overcome. Some commentators have also argued that the changes in where NGOs receive their funding has ultimately altered their functions. 57] NGOs have also been challenged on the grounds that they do not necessarily represent the needs of the developing world, thr ough diminishing the so-called â€Å"Southern Voice†. Some postulate that the North-South division exists in the arena of NGOs. [62] They question the equality of the relationships between Northern and Southern parts of the same NGOs as well as the relationships between Southern and Northern NGOs working in partnerships. This suggests a division of labour may develop, with the North taking the lead in advocacy and resource mobilisation whilst the South engages in service delivery in the developing world. 62] The potential implications of this may mean that the needs of the developing world are not addressed appropriately as Northern NGOs do not properly consult or participate in partnerships. The real danger in this situation is that western views may take the front seat and assign unrepresentative priorities. [63] The flood of NGOs has also been accused of damaging the public sector in multiple developing countries. The mismanagement of NGOs has resulted in the break down of public health care systems.Instead of promoting equity and alleviating poverty, NGOs have been under scrutiny for contributing to socioeconomic inequality and disempowering the services in the public sector of third world countries. [64] The scale and variety of activities in which NGOs participate has grown rapidly since the 1980s, witnessing particular expansion in the 1990s. [65] This has presented NGOs with need to balance the pressures of centralisation and decentralisation. By centralising NGOs, particularly those that operate at an international level, they can assign a common theme or set of goals.Conversely it is also advantageous to decentralise as this increases the chances of an NGO behaving flexibly and effectively to localised issues. [66] See also * Charitable organization * Civil society * Community foundation * NGO-isation * Non-governmental organizations by country * Non-profit organization * Not just for profit * Occupational health and safety * Track II diplomac y References 1. ^ Anheier et al. , â€Å"Global Civil Society 2001†, 2001 2. ^ â€Å"Hobbled NGOs wary of Medvedev†. Chicago Tribune. May 7, 2008. 3. ^ â€Å"India: More NGOs, than schools and health centres†. OneWorld. net. July 7, 2010.Retrieved 2011-10-07. 4. ^ â€Å"First official estimate: An NGO for every 400 people in India†. The Indian Express. July 7, 2010. 5. ^ a b c d e f g h Willetts, Peter. â€Å"What is a Non-Governmental Organization? â€Å". UNESCO Encyclopaedia of Life Support Systems. City University London. Retrieved 18 July 2012. 6. ^ Iriye, Akira (2004). Global community  : the role of international organizations in the making of the contemporary world (1. paperback print. ed. ). Berkeley, Calif. [u. a. ]: Univ. of California Press. ISBN  9780520231283. 7. ^ inspad. org 8. ^ Keck and Sikkink. â€Å"Environmental Advocacy Networks†.Books. google. com. Retrieved 2011-12-20. 9. ^ McCormick, John. â€Å"The Role of Environme ntal NGOs in International Regimes†. Books. google. com. Retrieved 2011-12-20. 10. ^ a b World Bank Criteria defining NGO[dead link] 11. ^ 100   LSE. ac. uk, Mukasa, Sarah. Are expatriate staff necessary in international development NGOs? A case study of an international NGO in Uganda. Publication of the Centre for Civil Society at London School of Economics. 2002, p. 11–13. 12. ^ â€Å"Poll shows power of AIPAC drops slightly†. Jewish News Weekly of Northern California. 1999-12-19. Retrieved 2007-06-25. 13. a b Pawel Zaleski Global Non-governmental Administrative System: Geosociology of the Third Sector, [in:] Gawin, Dariusz ; Glinski, Piotr [ed. ]: â€Å"Civil Society in the Making†, IFiS Publishers, Warszawa 2006 14. ^ Intractable Conflict Knowledge Base Project of the Conflict Research Consortium at the University of Colorado. [dead link] 15. ^ NG-Uh-O – The trouble with humanitarianism David Rieff, June 10, 2010, The New Republic 16. ^ Sarah Jane Gilbert (2008-09-08). â€Å"Harvard Business School, HBS Cases: The Value of Environmental Activists†. Hbswk. hbs. edu. Retrieved 011-12-20. 17. ^ Greenpeace, Annual Report 2008 (pdf) 18. ^ a b c http://www. fundsforngos. org/budget-for-ngos/defining-terms-budget/ 19. ^ â€Å"Code of Ethics & Conduct for NGOs†. Retrieved 11 April 2012. 20. ^ â€Å"National NGOs Serving as PRs Excluded from the Global Fund's Policy on Percentage-Based Overhead Costs†. 2012. 21. ^ Kuby, Christopher Gibbs  ; Claudia Fumo  ; Thomas (1999). Nongovernmental organizations in World Bank supported projects  : a review (2. ed. ed. ). Washington, D. C. : World Bank. pp. 21. ISBN  978-0-8213-4456-9. 22. ^ Crowther, edited by Guler Aras, David (2010).NGOs and social responsibility (1st ed. ed. ). Bingley, UK: Emerald. pp. 121. ISBN  978-0-85724-295-2. 23. ^ Kassahun, Samson (2004). Social capital for synergic partnership  : development of poor localities in urban Ethiopia (1 . Aufl. ed. ). Gottingen: Cuvillier. pp. 153. ISBN  978-3-86537-222-2. 24. ^ [1][dead link] 25. ^ [2][dead link]  PDF  (434  KB) 26. ^ Engler, Fenton, Yves, Anthony (2005). Canada in Haiti: Waging War on the Poor Majority. Vancouver, Winnipeg: RED Publishing. p. 120. ISBN  978-1-55266-168-0. Retrieved 2011-10-30. 27. ^ OSD. mil 28. ^ http://www. dtic. mil/whs/directives/corres/pdf/300005p. df 29. ^ The Rise and Fall of Transnational Civil Society: The Evolution of International Non-Governmental Organizations since 1839. By T. R. Davies City University London Working Paper. Steve Charnovitz, â€Å"Two Centuries of Participation: NGOs and International Governance, Michigan Journal of International Law, Winter 1997. 30. ^ Subcontracting Peace – The Challenges of NGO Peacebuilding. Edited by: Richmond, Oliver P. , and Carey, Henry F. Published by Ashgate, 2005. Page 21. 31. ^ Davies, Thomas Richard (2007). The Possibilities of Transnational Activism: the Campaign for D isarmament between the Two World Wars.ISBN  978-90-04-16258-7. 32. ^ Charter of the United Nations: Chapter X[dead link] 33. ^ United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. â€Å"Agenda 21 – Chapter 27: Strengthening the Role of Non-governmental Organizations: Partners for Sustainable Development, Earth Summit, 1992†. Habitat. igc. org. Retrieved 2011-12-20. 34. ^ â€Å"1996/31. Consultative relationship between the United Nations and non-governmental organizations†. Un. org. Retrieved 2011-12-20. 35. ^ Boli, J. and Thomas, G. M. (1997) World Culture in the World Polity: A century of International Non-Governmental Organization.American Sociological Review. pp. 177 36. ^ Bartlett, Lauren (2005). â€Å"NGO Update†. Human Rights Brief 12 (3): 44–45. 37. ^ Stone, Diane. â€Å"Transfer Agents and Global Networks in the ‘Transnationalisation’ of Policy†, Journal of European Public Policy. austiniskewl, 11(3) 2004: 545â⠂¬â€œ66. 38. ^ Grant B. Stillman (2007), Global Standard NGOs, Geneva: Lulu, pp. 13-14. 39. ^ Stuart Alan Becker (January 28, 2011). â€Å"The definitive description of a non-government organisation†. The Phnom Penh Post. Retrieved 2011-09-19. 40. ^ Shivji, Issa G. (2007). Silence in NGO discourse: the role and future of NGOs in Africa.Oxford, UK: Fahamu. p. 84. ISBN  978-0-9545637-5-2. 41. ^ Pfeiffer, J. 2003. International NGOs and primary health care in Mozambique: the need for a new model of collaboration. Social Science & Medicine 56 (4):725. 42. ^ Pfeiffer, J. 2003. International NGOs and primary health care in Mozambique: the need for a new model of collaboration. Social Science & Medicine 56 (4):725-738. 43. ^ J. Pfeiffer. (2003). International NGOs and primary health care in Mozambique: the need for a new model of collaboration. Social Science & Medicine 56 (2003) 725-738 44. ^ Jessica T.Mathews (Jan. – Feb. , 1997). â€Å"Power Shift†. Foreign Affair s. Retrieved 2012-06-01. 45. ^ Bond, M. (2000) The Backlash against NGOs. Prospect (magazine). 46. ^ Mother Teresa: A Communist View, Vijay Prashad, Australian Marxist Review, No. 40 August 1998 47. ^ Abahlali baseMjondoloRethinking Public Participation from below, ‘Critical Dialogue', 2006 48. ^ See his Damming the Flood (Verso, London, 2007. ) 49. ^ Building unity in diversity: Social movement activism in the Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign, Sophie Oldfield & Kristian Stokke, 2004 50. Ashraf Cassiem: South African Resistance Against Evictions, Marlon Crump, Poor Magazine, 2009 51. ^ ‘NGO’: The Guise of Innocence, by Jenny O'Connor, New Left Project, 2012 52. ^ Putin, Vladimir (February 10, 2007). Speech and the Following Discussion at the Munich Conference on Security Policy (Speech). 43rd Munich Conference on Security Policy. Munich, Germany. Retrieved February 28, 2012. 53. ^ Bond, Michael. â€Å"The Backlash against NGOs. † Prospect, April 2000, pp . 321. Print 54. ^ Bond, Michael. â€Å"The Backlash against NGOs. † Prospect, April 2000, pp. 323. Print 55. Bond, Michael. â€Å"The Backlash against NGOs. † Prospect, April 200, pp. 323. Print 56. ^ Weber, N. and Christopherson, T. (2002) The influence of non-givernmental organisations on the creation of Natura 2000 during the European policy process. Forest policy and Economics. 4(1), pp. 1-12. 57. ^ a b c Edwards, M. and Hulme, D. (2002) NGO Performance and Accountability: Introduction and Overview. â€Å"In: Edwards, M. and Hulme, D. , ed. 2002. † The Earthscan Reader on NGO Management. UK: Earthscan Publications Ltd. Chapter 11. 58. ^ Neera Chandhoke. (2005) â€Å"How Global Is Global Civil Society? Journal of World-Systems Research, 11, 2, 2005, pp. 326-327. 59. ^ Edwards, M. and Hulme, D. (2002) Beyond the Magic Bullet? Lessons and Conclusions. â€Å"In: Edwards, M. and Hulme, D. , ed. 2002. † The Earthscan Reader on NGO Management. UK: Earthsca n Publications Ltd. Chapter 12. 60. ^ a b Edwards, M. and Hulme, D. (1996) Too Close for comfort? The impact of official aid on Non-Governmental Organisations. â€Å"World Development. † 24(6), pp. 961-973. 61. ^ Ebrahim, A. (2003) Accountability in practice: Mechanisms for NGOs. â€Å"World Development. † 31(5), pp. 813-829. 62. ^ a b Lindenberg, M. and Bryant, C. 2001) Going Global:Transforming Relief and Development NGOs. Bloomfield: Kumarian Press. 63. ^ Jenkins, R. (2001) Corporate Codes of Conduct: Self-Regulation in a Global Economy. â€Å"Technology, Business and Society Programme Paper Number 2. † United Nations Research Institute for Social Development. 64. ^ Pfeiffer, J. 2003. International NGOs and primary health care in Mozambique: the need for a new model of collaboration. Social Science ; Medicine 56(4):725-738. 65. ^ Avina, J. (1993) The Evolutionary Life Cycles if Non-Governmental Development Organisations. â€Å"Public Administration and Devel opment. † 13(5), pp. 53-474. 66. ^ Anheier, H. and Themudo, N. (2002) Organisational forms of global civil society: Implications of going global. In: Anheier, H. Glasius, M. Kaldor, M, ed 2002. Further reading * Mark Butler, with Thulani Ndlazi, David Ntseng, Graham Philpott, and Nomusa Sokhela. NGO Practice and the Possibility of Freedom Church Land Programme, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa 2007 Churchland. co. za[dead link] * Olivier Berthoud, NGOs: Somewhere between Compassion, Profitability and Solidarity Envio. org. ni, PDF Edinter. net Envio, Managua, 2001 * Terje Tvedt, 19982/2003: Angels of Mercy or Development Diplomats.NGOs ; Foreign Aid, Oxford: James Currey * Steve W. Witt, ed. Changing Roles of NGOs in the Creation, Storage, and Dissemination of Information in Developing Countries (Saur, 2006). ISBN 3-598-22030-8 * Cox, P. N. Shams, G. C. Jahn, P. Erickson and P. Hicks. 2002. Building collaboration between NGOs and agricultural research institutes. Cambodian Journ al of Agriculture 6: 1-8. IRRI. org[dead link] * Ann Florini, ed. The Third Force: The Rise of Transnational Civil Society (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and Japan Center for International Exchange, 2001). Margaret Keck and Kathryn Sikkink. 1998. Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics. Cornell University Press * Rodney Bruce Hall, and Biersteker, Thomas. The Emergence of Private Authority in Global Governance (Cambridge Studies in International Relations, 2003) * Dorthea Hilhorst, The Real World of NGOs: Discourses, Diversity and Development, Zed Books, 2003 * Joan Roelofs, Foundations and Public Policy: The Mask of Pluralism (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2003). Ian Smillie, ; Minear, Larry, editors. The Charity of Nations: Humanitarian Action in a Calculating World, Kumarian Press, 2004 * Simon Maxwell and Diane Stone. (eds) Global Knowledge Networks and International Development: Bridges Across Boundaries (Routledge, 2005: I-xix; 1-192). * Sidney Tarrow, The New Transnational Activism, New York  :Cambridge University Press, 2005 * Thomas Ward, editor. Development, Social Justice, and Civil Society: An Introduction to the Political Economy of NGOs, Paragon House, 2005 * H. Teegen, 2003. International NGOs as Global Institutions: Using Social Capital to Impact Multinational Enterprises and Governments’, Journal of International Management. * Jennifer Brinkerhoff, Stephen C. Smith, and Hildy Teegen, NGOs and the Millennium Development Goals: Citizen Action to Reduce Poverty, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. * S. Goonatilake. Recolonisation: Foreign Funded NGO's in Sri Lanka, Sage Publications 2006. * Teegen, H. Doh, J. , Vachani, S. , 2004. â€Å"The importance of nongovernmental organisation in global governance and value creation: an international business research agendaâ€Å" in Journal of International Business Studies.Washington: Vol. 35, Iss. 6. * K. Rodman, (1998). â€Å"‘Think Global ly, Punish Locally: Nonstate Actors, Multinational Corporations, and Human Rights Sanctions† in Ethics in International Affairs, vol. 12. * Grant B. Stillman (2006), NGO Law and Governance: a resource book, ADB Institute, Tokyo, ISBN 4-89974-013-1. More useful are regional histories and analyses of the experience of NGOs. Specific works (although this is by no means an exhaustive list) include: * T. R. Davies, The Possibilities of Transnational Activism: The Campaign for Disarmament between the Two World Wars, Brill, 2007.ISBN 3-598-22030-8 * H. Englund, Prisoners of Freedom: Human Rights & the Africa Poor, University of California Press, 2006 * Carrie Meyer, The Economics and Politics of NGOs in Latin America, Praeger Publishers, July 30, 1999 * Chhandasi Pandya. 2006. Private Authority and Disaster Relief: The Cases of Post-Tsunami Aceh and Nias. Critical Asian Studies. Vol. 38, No. 2. Pg. 298-308. Routledge Press: Taylor & Francis Group * Maha Abdelrahman, Civil Society Exp osed: The Politics of NGOs in Egypt, The American University in Cairo Press, 2004.Al-Ahram Weekly has done a review of the book. * Sangeeta Kamat, Development hegemony: NGOs and The State in India, Delhi, New York; Oxford University Press, 2002 * Adama Sow, Chancen und Risiken von NGOs – Die Gewerkschaften in Guinea wahrend der Unruhen 2007 – EPU Research Papers: Issue 03/07, Stadtschlaining 2007 (German) * Lyal S. Sunga, â€Å"Dilemmas facing INGOs in coalition-occupied Iraq†, in Ethics in Action: The Ethical Challenges of International Human Rights Nongovernmental Organizations, edited by Daniel A. Bell and Jean-Marc Coicaud, Cambridge Univ. and United Nations Univ.Press, 2007. * Lyal S. Sunga, â€Å"NGO Involvement in International Human Rights Monitoring, International Human Rights Law and Non-Governmental Organizations† (2005) 41-69. * Werker & Ahmed (2008): What do Non-Governmental Organizations do? * Steve Charnovitz, â€Å"Two Centuries of Partic ipation: NGOs and International Governance,† Michigan Journal of International Law, Vol. 18, Winter 1997, at 183-286. * Abahlali baseMjondolo Rethinking Public Participation from Below, ‘Critical Dialogue', 2006 * Akpan S. M (2010): Establishment of Non-Governmental Organizations (In Press). Edward A. L. Turner (2010) Why Has the Number of International Non-Governmental Organizations Exploded since 1960? , Cliodynamics, 1, (1). Retrieved from: [3] * Eugene Fram & Vicki Brown, How Using the Corporate Model Makes a Nonprofit Board More Effective & Efficient – Third Edition (2011), Amazon Books, Create Space Books. The de facto reference resource for information and statistics on International NGOs (INGOs) and other transnational organisational forms is the Yearbook of International Organizations, produced by the Union of International Associations. David Lewis and Nazneen Kanji (2009): Non-Governmental Organizations and Development. New York: Routledge. * Issa G. Sh ivji (2007): Silence in NGO Discourse: The Role and Future of NGOs in Africa. Nairobi: Fahamu. * Jens Steffek and Kristina Hahn (2010): Evaluating Transnational NGOs: Legitimacy, Accountability, Representation. New York: Palgrave, Macmillan. External links * NGO Search: NGO/IGO google custom search engine built by the Govt Documents Round Table (GODORT) of the American Library Association. * Interface journal special issue on NGOs * A brief history of Non-Governmental Organizations Historical Database of International NGOs * Duke University NGO Library * Global Policy Forum: The site includes articles on a wide range of aspects of NGOs. * NGOs – Non-Governmental Organizations * What is a Non-Governmental Organization? 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Reflecrion paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reflecrion paper - Essay Example Despite these changes the Larry King case is an absolute tragedy that reflects that the new reality of the gay movement in America. In the past teenagers were hesitant to come out of the closet and reveal their feelings until there were matured enough to deal with society’s pressures and discriminatory forces against. At the earlier they came was late in high school or early in college. This has drastically changed due to exposure and perception of social acceptance of gays by television programming that has gay characters such as Ellen, Gossip Girl and Ugly Betty (Setoodeh, 2008). There is nothing wrong with any of these programs, but a ten year old may fall into the erroneous assumption that being openly gay at such age is a safe move when in reality can place a child in danger. Young Larry King was gunned down in classroom by another 14 year old called Brandon Mclnerney. Larry was going through some tough times such as being separated by social services from his parents due to allegations from Larry that his dad was abusing him. He was openly gay since the age of 10, but now his behavior was more erratic and even started dressing up as girl in school. The school had their hands tight up and could not do anything about the cross dressing due to hate-crime laws against gender discrimination. Larry was taunting Brandon in public because he liked him, but Brandon felt embarrassed and harassed Larry romantic motives. The situation got out of control and ended up in the tragic death of child. The second story studied Where old is still gold, not cold by David Lavoie deals with society’s perception of the elderly in a foreign nation. In this story a man travels to Malaysia and realizes after a diving class that in this part the hemisphere the fact that he is a senior citizen of 64 years old is seen by society as a reason to show greater respect to him. The elderly are seen as holders of knowledge and wisdom. The author of the story

Hip-Hop as an Integral Part of African- American Culture Essay

Hip-Hop as an Integral Part of African- American Culture - Essay Example There is a wide range of African-American music for instance gospel, jazz, blues, soul and hip-hop. However, hip-hop is the most important music genre that has greatly influenced the culture and identity of the African American people. To the African American people, hip-hop is encompasses more than music to include other components such as language, clothing and way of life. African Americans use hip-hop to express black culture and identity in society. To the African American community, hip-hop is part of the black identity and culture.Hip-Hop originated in the African-American community in the late 1970s as a form of music as well as an artistic culture in New York City. The late 1970’s was an important time in the history of the African American people as it marked a period when both the black middle and working classes were struggling to move out of poverty. Hip-Hop originated from other traditional forms of African American music such as jazz, soul and gospel. It was cre ated by African Americans like Herc who was working and had the ability to create a form of music and culture that expressed and shaped the culture of black people in New York City in the 1970s. However, since the development of hip-hop culture the society associated hip-hop with negative messages from the American urban streets such as drugs, violence and crime. Hip-hops representation in the media and the society is contrary to the original purpose that was to offer black people a forum to express personal feelings in an artistic and rhythmic manner (Reese par. 5).The different elements of hip-hop culture provide avenues and creative outlets through which African American people can practice and express the black culture. Most people use hip-hop to express their political and emotional feelings to the rest of the world.  

Critically evaluate Rene Descartes's claim that the mind is not a part Essay

Critically evaluate Rene Descartes's claim that the mind is not a part of the physical world. Could modern science help settl - Essay Example This essay critically evaluates Descartes’s claim that the mind is not a part of the physical world. It also includes a brief analysis of the response of modern science to this classical assumption. A Cartesian Perspective of the Mind Descartes believes that the tendency to associate sensible features with bodies is a mistake developed during childhood. During these early years individuals acquire the belief that the physical world is strongly connected to their sensations, or that it has the types of attributes it seems to possess in sense perception, both sensible and automatic. But indeed, he argues, bodies possess only automatic attributes, such as motion, size, and shape, and people’s perception of sensible attributes are brought about by formation of these attributes (Wilson, 2003). Challenging the simple perception of the physical world is a major objective of the Meditations. The movement against faith in the senses, and specifically against the belief that bodi es are the same as sensations, is an important instrument in realising this objective, because Descartes believes the simple understanding of the physical world is mostly rooted in the notion that bodies are the same as people’s sensations (Morton, 2010). Descartes started his pursuit of truth by using his newly developed method of inquiry. His method used intense scepticism—all ideas that are doubtful were disregarded, including ancient wisdom taught by scholasticism. More critically, Descartes also doubted ideas coming from the senses because â€Å"from time to time I have found that the senses deceive, and it is prudent never to trust completely those who have deceived us even once† (Wilson, 2003, p. 37). Evidently this argument encouraged questioning much of the established knowledge, and eliminating them as potential groundwork of thought. All ideas of the physical world might be untrue, since knowledge of them arises from the untrustworthy senses. Moreover , the presence of the physical body was questioned based on the same justification (Engel & Soldan, 2007, p. 334): â€Å"I shall consider myself as not having hands or eyes, or flesh, or blood or senses, but as falsely believing that I have all these things†. Descartes afterward thought that in order to doubt, he should exist as a ‘thinking’ being: â€Å"I must finally conclude that this proposition, I am, I exist, is necessarily true whenever it is put forward by me or conceived in my mind† (Christofidou, 2013, p. 41). And then he defines a ‘thinking’ being as â€Å"a thing that doubts, understands, affirms, denies, is willing, is unwilling, and also imagines and has sensory perceptions† (Morton, 2010, p. 81). This series of arguments led him to his concluding point: the mind is not part of the physical w

Business Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Business Strategy - Essay Example It was through this that Apple Incorporated was finally able to come up with its Mac (Macintosh) product line that started to create a name by itself. Integrated with this product line is an Operating System that also struggled to compete with Microsoft. It was not therefore easy for Apple Incorporated to establish its name due to the fact that its industry is home to fierce competition among its key players. However, as competition continues to grow, Apple Incorporated nowadays is able to come up with different product lines such as iPhones and iTunes, iPad, Apple TV, Xserve, professional software application, Mac OS X and iOS operating systems, and other service and support offerings. This is an indication of a never-ending quest for innovative products that continue to help customers address their needs that can only be found from consumer technology products. Apple Incorporated has correspondingly gained big market share in iPhones. Apple’s market share for smart phones in 2008 was 12.9 percent which eventually what made the company as the third largest manufacturer in the world for the said product line (Marino et al., 2010). In the midst of a very tough competition, everything for Apple Incorporated is a matter of creating a need for its product line. ... Company analysis Today, Apple Incorporated operates globally with its products distributed through out its ‘retail and online stores, direct sales force, third party cellular network carriers, wholesalers, retailers and value-added resellers’ (New York Times, 2011). This implies that Apple is into aggressive marketing efforts prior to achieving its competitive advantage. This is an integral part of a global strategy in which the benefits primarily include economies of scale or product replication, the opportunity to serve global customers, exploiting international resources, and the access and integration of knowledge from multiple locations (Grant, 2010; Johnson et al., 2008). This is a matter of giving more ample opportunities for Apple to discover further competitive strength in its industry through the maximisation of its operation and resources, which eventually needs to be worked out. Global companies are known to diversify their operation and find the right combin ation of resources for their competitive advantage (Feist, 1999). In this way, it is necessary for them to reach certain level of achievement in their industry and that is to go for global strategy. The opportunities are great but there are also corresponding higher risks. Apple Incorporated has remarkably taken different approaches prior to achieving a significant market share and eventually enduring on a very tough competition and risks. In May 2010, Apple Incorporated becomes the world’s most valuable company by outperforming the software giant Microsoft based on its stock value. This is an indication that Apple’s strategic moves have paid off over time and its continuing operation in its industry is a significant

Financial Review of Southern Textiles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Financial Review of Southern Textiles - Essay Example f) Based on the information about potential returns on investments in the first paragraph and information 0n marginal cost of capital ( in parts a, c, and e) how large a capital investment budget should the firm use Project A will increase the firm's processed yarn capacity and has an expected return of 15% after taxes. Project B will increase the capacity for woven fabrics and carries a return of 13.5%. Project C, a venture into synthetic fibers, is expected to earn 11.2% and Project D, an investment into dye and textile chemicals, is expected to show a 10.5 % return. Project A 15% 25 million Project B 13.50% 25 million Project C 11.20% 25 million Project D 10.50% 25 million 100 Project C and D yield lower rates of return than 11.304% . Hence they should not be taken up Investment budget should be for Projects A and B= 25+25=50 million g) Graph the answer determined in part f.

Narrative about painting The Scream Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Narrative about painting The Scream - Essay Example The essay "Narrative about painting The Scream" focuses on the discussion of the painting "The Scream". Answers- that was what O’ Neill was looking for in this day. Walking to office, he remembered his call for visual proof from the detective. The detective had assured him that it would be provided. There was no need to look for the veracity of his claims of course. Adultery was the norm, he had said. That day, he met Charles at the office and gave him a long hard look. The thought of this man, who was his junior in the office being with his wife, filled him with white hot rage. He kept telling himself that it was just a matter of a few more hours when the entire truth would unfold before everyone’s eyes. He would then revel in his triumph and reveal to everybody how he had been correct. They would have the satisfaction of telling him that they had always warned him of the match. They had told him that she was never from the same social position that he was in and would not understand the realities of his cultural position. She had proved herself and the others through this action of hers. If it had not been for Isaac, he would have been left in a quandary where he would have found himself unable to pick up the shards of his life together. Delinda was at the gate, waiting for O’ Neill as usual. This was the way things were since the day they had gotten married. She would return early and wait for him to the gate of their house and they would go in together. Today, she felt he was absent-minded over something.

Leadership theories Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Leadership theories - Assignment Example Mandela was indeed a courageous individual who did not fear the white men who ruled his country. He fought them in every way and even ended up in prison severally the last term lasting for over twenty years and still his courage did not falter to the say the least. It is his courage that made him and others deliver South Africa from the apartheid rule and led it to independence. Even though he was mishandled by the police and knew the legal trouble he would get into by opposing the apartheid rules, he still went ahead and organized strikes and mass protests in order to try and gain independence (Hollingsworth, 2012). He was an assertive leader which made him succeed among all the others who had try to deliver the country from the colonialists. His assertiveness was as a result of him being an extrovert from birth. He would not take no for an answer and neither would he back down even when told to as long as he got his way which was the best of for the rest of the people. It is his assertiveness that led to him gaining a law degree in order to understand the legal system of his nation as well as a military training in order to fight the colonialists by all means and ways possible. Nelson Mandela was a charismatic leader loved and listened to by not only the South Africans but the whole world in general. His struggles for independence made people love and believe in him even more. Years after he retired as the president of South Africa, he still had huge number of followers and people came from all over the world to come and see him including dignitaries and celebrities. His 90th birthday celebration in Hyde Park London was a testament of his charismatic leadership trait as millions of people from all over the world celebrated. His burial ceremony was also another example of how loved he was as a leader (Hollingsworth, 2012). Lastly, Mandela was an

What Factors Influence Gang Behavior Research Paper

What Factors Influence Gang Behavior - Research Paper Example In order to be able to solve this problem, it is important to study the reasons or the root causes of gang behavior with the intention of trying to prevent new gang membership, while at the same time embarking on a mission to dismantle the already existing ones. This paper is a critical evaluation of the factors that influence gang behavior. Factors that Influence.Human beings are born innocent, free of sins and incapable of making any decision. However, as they continue to grow, they are faced with numerous challenges raging from family issues to other environmental factors, which influence their innocent minds either into becoming responsible persons or the worst of criminals in the society. To begin with, parents contribute a significant percentage towards the success or failure of a child in terms of behavior. This is due to the fact that they act as immediate role models and a source of inspiration for their growing children. It is for this reason that Carlie (2002) observes tha t poor parentage is a major contributing factor to gang behavior. For example, if one or both parents are gang members, more often than not, it becomes likely that their children will follow that route. This may be worse in families that are dysfunctional and which are characterized by numerous cases of domestic conflicts and child abuse. The rationale of this assertion is that if a child is subjected to these factors, he will grow up believing that violence is a virtue and unless this mentality is changed through proper guidance and counseling, then, the child would have neither a reason nor the guts to refrain from joining violent organizations. Outside family circles, growing up children and youths are influenced by peer pressure to engage in antisocial behavior, which may include gang membership. Peer pressure refers to the powerful influence that a group of people in the same age group have on each other. In this context, it has been noted that people tend to acquire the behavi ors of other members of their social groups as a way of trying to fit into those groups. This factor has been blamed on other negative behaviors such as alcohol and drug abuse, fornication, among others and gang membership cannot be excluded from this list. According to myelsie.org (2010), â€Å"young people are very susceptible to peer pressure.† One reason for this is that young people always want to identify with friends and when it comes to choosing between friendship and conscience, most of them will definitely choose friendship even if it means that they would have to tolerate and involve themselves in criminal activities. In the US, it is a fact that gang membership is highly prevalent in schools and even if a child comes from a family that is opposed to gang membership and activities, he or she may end up joining the gangs so as not to be rejected or harassed by his or her peers (myelsie.org 2010). Poverty is blamed for numerous atrocities and gang behavior is one of such. Everyone wants to lead a comfortable life, to drive beautiful cars, drink high quality beer or wine, to live in a luxurious home among others. Whereas it is difficult for a normal civilian, especially from poor neighborhoods, to acquire these items, it is highly

The Indolence of the Filipino Essay Example for Free

The Indolence of the Filipino Essay The word indolence has been greatly misused in the sense of little love for work and lack of energy†¦In the Philippines one’s and another’s faults, the shortcomings of one, the misdeeds of another, are attributed to indolence. And just as in the Middle Ages he who sought the explanation of phenomena outside of infernal influences was persecuted, so in the Philippines worse happens to him who seeks the origin of the trouble outside of accepted beliefs. Indolence in the Philippines is a chronic malady, but not a hereditary one. The Filipinos have not always been what they are, witnesses whereto are all the historians of the first years after the discovery of the Islands. All the histories of [the country’s] first years†¦abound in long accounts about the industry and agriculture of the natives; mines, gold-washings, looms, farms, barter, naval construction, raising of poultry and stock, weaving of silk and cotton, distilleries, etc. , are things encountered at every step, and considering the time and the conditions in the islands, prove that there was life, there was activity, there was movement. The Filipinos in spite of the climate, in spite of their few needs (they were less then than now), were not the indolent creatures of our time†¦their ethics and their mode of life were not what is not complacently attributed to them. How is it strange, then, that discouragement may have been infused into the spirit of the inhabitants of the Philippines, when in the midst of so many calamities they did not know whether they would see sprout the seed they were planting, whether their field was going to be their grave or their crop would go to feed their executioner? He who does not act freely is not responsible for his actions; and the Filipino people, not being master of its liberty, is not responsible for either its misfortunes or its woes. We say this, it is true, but, as well as seen later on, we also have a large part in the continuation of such a disorder. Of no little importance were the hindrance and obstacles that from the beginning were thrown in the farmer’s way by the rules, who were influenced by childish fear and saw everywhere signs of conspiracies and uprisings. The natives were not allowed to go to their labors, that is, their farms, without permission of the governor, or of his agents and officers, and even of the priests as Morga says†¦ A modern French traveler who was in the Philippines for a long time says, â€Å"†¦the governor, the foremost official of the district†¦monopolizes all the business and instead of developing on his part the love of work, instead of stimulating the too natural indolence of the natives, he with abuse of his powers thinks only of destroying all competition that may trouble him or attempts to participate in his profits. It matters little to him that the country is impoverished, without cultivation, without commerce, without industry, just so the governor is quickly enriched. † All the Filipinos†¦know how many documents, what comings, how many stamped papers, how much patience is needed to secure from the government a permit for an enterprise. One must count upon the good will of this one, on the influence of that one, on a good bribe to another in order that the application be not pigeon-holed†¦And above all, great patience, great knowledge of how to get along, plenty of money, a great deal of politics, many salutations, great influence, plenty of presents and complete resignation! The trade with China†¦was not only prejudicial to Spain but also the life of her colonies; in fact, when the officials and private persons in Manila found an easy method of getting rich they neglected everything. They paid no attention either to cultivating the soil or to fostering industry†¦The pernicious example of the dominators in surrounding themselves with servants and despising manual or corporal labor as a thing unbecoming the nobility and chivalrous pride of the heroes of so many centuries; those lordly airs, which the natives have translated into tila ka castila, and the desire of the dominated to be the equal of the dominators, if not essentially, at east in their manners; all this had naturally to produce aversion to activity and fear or hatred of work. â€Å"Why work? † asked the natives. The curate says that the rich man will not go to heaven. The rich man on earth is liable to all kinds of trouble, to be appointed a cabeza de barangay†¦to be forced banker of the military chief of the town, who to reward him for favors received seizes his laborers and his stock in order to force him to beg money and thus easily pays up. Why be rich? †¦The native, whom they pretend to regard as an imbecile, is not so much so that he does not understand that it is ridiculous to work himself to death to become worse off. A proverb of his says the pig is cooked in its own lard, and as among his bad qualities he has the good one of applying to himself all the criticisms and censures he refers to live miserable and indolent rather than play the part of the wretched beast of burden. Along with gambling, which breeds dislike for steady and difficult toil by its promise of sudden wealth and its appeal to the emotions, with the lotteries, with the prodigality and hospitality of the Filipinos, went also, to swell the train of misfortunes, the religious functions the great number of fiestas, the long masses for the women to spend their mornings and the novenaries to spend their afternoons, and the nights for the processions and rosaries. Remember, that lack of capital and absence of means paralyze all movement, and you will see how the native was perforce (unavoidably) to be indolent for if any money might remain to him from the trials, imposts and exactions, he would have to give it to the curate for bulls, scapularies, candles, novenaries, etc. And if this does not suffice to form an indolent character†¦ recall then that the doctrine of his religion teach him to irrigate his fields in the dry season, not by means of canals but with masses and prayers; to preserve his stock during an epidemic with holy water, exorcisms and benedictions that cost five dollars an animal, to drive away the locusts by a procession with the image of St. Augustine, etc†¦We have noticed that the countries which believe most in miracles are the laziest, just as spoiled children are the most ill-mannered. Whether they believe in miracles to palliate their laziness or they are lazy because they believe in miracles, we cannot say; but the fact is the Filipinos were much less lazy before the word miracle was introduced into their language. With the lack of confidence in the future, that uncertainty of reaping the reward of labor, as in a city stricken with plague, everybody yields to fate, shuts himself in his house or goes about amusing himself in an attempt to spend the few days that remain to him in the least disagreeable way possible. The apathy of the government itself toward everything in commerce and agriculture contributes not a little to foster indolence. There is no encouragement at all for the manufacturer or for the farmer, the government furnishes no aid either when a poor crop comers, when the locusts sweep over the fields, or when cyclone destroys in its passage the wealth of the soil†¦Why should it do so when these same products are burdened with taxes and imposts and have no free entry into the ports of the mother country, nor is their consumption there encouraged? And the principal and most terrible [reason] of all: the education of the native. From his birth until he sinks into his grave, the training of the native is brutalizing, depressive and anti-human†¦There is no doubt that the government, some priests like the Jesuits and some Dominicans like Padre Benavides, have done a great deal by founding colleges, schools of primary instruction, and the like. But this is not enough; their efforts are neutralized. They amount to five or ten years†¦during which the youth comes in contact with books selected by those very priests who boldly proclaim that it is evil for the natives to know Castilian, that the native should not be separated from his carabao, that he should not value any further aspirations, and so on †¦Thus while they attempt to make of the native a kind of animal, yet in exchange they demand of him divine actions†¦Deprive a man, then, of his dignity, and you not only deprive him of his moral strength but you also make useless for those who wish to make use of him. Every creature has its stimulus, its mainspring; man’s is his self-esteem. Take it away from him and he is a corpse, and he who seeks activity in a corpse will encounter only worms. Thus is explained how the natives of the present time are no longer the same as those of the time of the discovery, neither morally nor physically. The ancient writers, like Chirino, Morga, and Colin, take pleasure in describing them a well-featured, with good aptitudes for anything they take up, keen and susceptible and of resolute will, very clean and neat in their persons and clothing, and of good mien and bearing (Morga)†¦ In exchange, the writers of the present time, without being more gallant than Herman Cortez and Salcedo, nor more prudent than Legazpi, nor more manly than Morga, nor more prudent than Colin and Gaspar de San Agustin, our contemporary writers we say find that the native is a creature something more than a monkey but much less than a man, an anthropoid, dull-witted, stupid, timid, dirty, cringing, ill-clothed, indolent, lazy brainless, immoral, etc. tc. To what is this retrogression due? Is it the delectable civilization, the religion of salvation of the friars, called of Jesus Christ by euphemism, that has produced this miracle that has atrophied his brain, paralyzed his heart and made of the man this sort of vicious animal that the writers depict? Alas! The whole misfortune of the present Filipinos consists in that they have become only half-way brutes. The Filipino is convinced that to get happiness it is necessary for him to lay aside his dignity as a rational creature, to attend mass, to believe what is told him, to pay what is demanded of him, to pay and forever to pay; to work, suffer, and be silent, without aspiring anything, without aspiring to know or even to understand Spanish, without separating himself from his carabao, as the priests shamelessly say, without protesting against any injustice, against any arbitrary action, against an assault, against an insult; that is, not to have heart, brain, or spirit; a creature with arms and a purse of gold. . there’s the ideal native! unfortunately, or because the brutalization is not yet complete and because the nature of man is inherent in his being in spite of his condition, the native protests; he still has aspirations, he thinks and strives to rise, and there’s the trouble! Peoples and governments are correlated and complementary: a stupid government would be an a nomaly among righteous people, just as a corrupt people cannot exist under just rulers and wise laws. Like people, like government, we will say in paraphrase of a popular adage. The very limited training in the home, the tyrannical and sterile education of the rare centers of learning that blind subordination of the youth to one of greater age, influence the mind so that a man may not aspire to excel those who preceded him but must merely be content to go along with a march behind them. Stagnation forcibly results from this, and as he who devotes himself merely to copying divests himself of other qualities suited to his own nature, he naturally becomes sterile; hence decadence. Indolence is a corollary derived from the lack of stimulus and of vitality. That modesty infused into the convictions of everyone, or, to speak more clearly, that insinuated inferiority, a sort of daily and constant depreciation of the mind so that it may not be raised to the regions of life, deadens the energies, paralyzes all tendencies toward advancement, and of the least struggle a man gives up without fighting. If by one of those rare incidents, some wild spirit, that is some active one, excels, instead of his example stimulating, it only causes others to persist in their inaction. There’s one who will work for us; let’s sleep on! † say his relatives and friends. True it is that the spirit of rivalry is sometimes awakened, only that then it awakens with bad humor in the guise of envy, and instead of being a lever for helping, it is an obstacle that produces discouragement. Nurtured by the example of anchorites (monks) of a contemplative and lazy life, the natives spend theirs in giving their gold to the Church in the hope of miracles and other wonderful things. Their will is hypnotized: from childhood they learned to act mechanically, without knowledge of the object, thanks to the exercise imposed upon them from the most tender years of praying for whole hours in an unknown tongue, of venerating things that they do not understand, of accepting beliefs that are not explained to them, to having absurdities imposed upon them, while the protests of reason are repressed. Is it any wonder that with this vicious dressage of intelligence and will the native, should now be a mass of dismal contradictions? That continual struggle between reason and duty, between his organism and his new ideals, that civil war which disturbs the peace of his conscience all his life, has the result of paralyzing all his energies, and aided by the severity of the climate, makes that eternal vacillation, of the doubts in his brain, the origin of his indolent disposition. â€Å"You can’t know more than this or that old man! † â€Å"Don’t aspire to be greater than the curate! † â€Å"You belong to an inferior race! â€Å"You haven’t any energy! † This is what they tell the child and they repeat it so often, it has perforce to become engraved in the mind and thence mould and pervade all his action. The child or youth who tries to be anything else is blamed with vanity and presumption; the curate ridicules him with cruel sarcasm, his relatives look upon him with fear, strangers regard him with great compassion. No forward movement — Get back in the ranks and ke ep in line! With his spirit thus molded the native falls into the most pernicious (wicked; malicious; harmful) of all routines: routine not planned but imposed and forced†¦What he lacks is in the first place liberty to allow expansion to his adventuresome spirit, and good examples, beautiful prospects for the future. It is necessary that his spirit, store up energy, seek high purposes, in order to struggle against obstacles in the midst of unfavorable natural conditions. In order that he may progress it is necessary that a revolutionary spirit, so to speak, should boil in his veins, since progress necessarily requires the present; the victory of new ideas over the ancient and accepted one†¦all the flattering promises of the fairest hopes will not suffice, so long as his spirit is not free, his intelligence is not respected. Convinced by the insinuation of his inferiority, his spirit harassed by his education, if that brutalization of which we spoke above can be called education, in that exchange of usages and sentiments among different nations, the Filipino, to whom remain only his susceptibility and his oetical imagination, allows himself to be guided by his fancy and his self-love†¦ They have dazzled him with tinsel, with strings of colored glass beads, with noisy rattles, shining mirrors and other trinkets, and he has given in return his gold, his conscience, and even his liberty. He changed his religion for the external practices of another cult; the convictions and usages derived from his climate and needs, for other convictions that developed under another sky and another inspiration. His spirit, well-disposed toward everything that looks good to him, was then transformed, at the pleasure of the nation that forced upon him its God and its law, and as the trader with whom he dealt did not bring a cargo of useful implements of iron, hoes to till the fields, but stamped papers, crucifixes, bulls and prayer-books, as he did not have for ideal and prototype the tanned and vigorous laborer, but the aristocratic Lord carried in a luxurious litter, the result was that the imitative people became bookish, devout, prayerful; it acquired ideas of luxury and ostentation, without thereby improving the means of its substance to a corresponding degree.